Duduli

Every system is made of atoms, ions or molecules. Energy is stored in atoms,ions and molecules in different forms as electronic energy, nuclear energy, potential energy, kinetic energy etc. “The total energy stored in a system under a given set of conditions is called it's internal energy or intrinsic energy, U”.

Bond energy or enthalpy of a given bond is defined as the average of energies required to dissociate one mole of said bond present in different gaseous compounds into free atoms or radicals in the gaseous state. The word 'average' in the definition of bond energy is used because the bond energy of a particular bond is not the same when present in different compounds. Therefore, an average value is taken. For example, the O—H bond energy in water molecule is the average of the two bond dissociation energies.

It is defined as the range of frequency over which the voltage gain is equal to or greater than 1/√2 of mid frequency voltage gain.   

Root mean square (RMS) value of current is that value of steady current which produces same heating effect through load resistance in same time as is produce by AC in one of its cycle.

Forward current transfer ratio (α) for common base operation is defined as the ratio between change in collector current to the change in emitter current keeping collector base voltage constant.

In non inverting amplifier the input signal voltage is applied to the non inverting input terminal of op-amp & inverting terminal is grounded. A part of output signal voltage is fedback to the inverting input terminal of op-amp through fedback resistance.

In inverting amplifier the input signal voltage is applied to the inverting input terminal of op-amp & the non-inverting input terminal is grounded.

It is defined as the ratio between output voltage to the input signal voltage.         A' = Vo/Vs  Where, A' = closed loop voltage gain               Vo = output voltage               Vs = input signal voltage 

It is defined as the ratio of output voltage to differential input voltage.          A=Vo/Vd Where, A  = open loop voltage gain             Vo = output voltage             Vd = differential input voltage 

Digital circuits operate on discretely variable signals or digital signals i.e , the signals exists only in two levels 0 & 1. ★Digital circuits are relatively easy to design with various automated tools. ★Digital circuits are not much expensive. ★In digital circuits accuracy is not much as in analog.

4 bit binary adder is a digital circuit which performs binary addition of two binary bits in parallel form & produces the sum in parallel form.

A logic circuit that can add two binary bits is called a half adder (HA). It is a combinational logic circuit in which outputs is only dependent on present input. It is used for the addition of 2 binary digits. It contains 2 inputs & 2 outputs. One output is sum & another is carry out. Block diagram of half adder is shown in figure,

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an electronic device which is capable of giving a visual indication of a signal waveform (electrical signals). ★ A CRO can be used to measure the amplitude & frequency of signal voltage. It can also be used to measure phase difference between two ac voltages.

A decoder is a combinational logic circuit which convert N-bit binary input code into M output lines in such a way that only one output is activated for each input.

A demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit which receives a single input & distributes it over several output line. Hence a demultiplexer is also known as a distributor since it transmits the single data to different destination.

A multiplexer is a combinational logic circuit which receives several data inputs & selects only one out of them to get through to the output. A multiplexer is also known as a data selector since it selects one out of many inputs & directs the selected input to the output.

It is the ratio between the product of the concentrations of product species to that of the reactant species at any stage of the reversible reaction other than equilibrium.

The shift of the spot of light on the screen per unit change in voltage across the deflection plates is known as deflection sensitivity of CRT. Spot deflection = Deflection sensitivity × applied voltage.

The addition of two binary numbers is performed in exactly the same manner as the addition of decimal numbers. In fact, binary addition is simpler, because we have only two digits(0 & 1). When adding binary numbers, the following rules apply            0+0=1            1+0=1            1+1=10=0+ carry of 1 into next position            1+1+1=11=1+ carry of 1 into next position

The sum of products form of a boolean expression consists of two or more AND terms (i.e products) that are ORed together.    e.g AB+CD, ABC+A'BC’ etc.

It is the set of rules used to simplify the given logic expression without changing it's functionality. It is used when number of variables are less. Boolean algebra differs from ordinary algebra in that boolean constants and variables can have only two values 0 & 1.

The resistance offered by the diode to the reverse bias is known as reverse resistance. It can be d.c. reverse resistance or a.c. reverse resistance depending upon whether the reverse bias is direct or changing voltage. Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is infinite. However, in practice the reverse resistance is not infinite because for any value of reverse bias there does exist a small leakage current.

A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range.

When the feedback signal which is fed back at input is out of phase with input, then feedback is called negative or degenerative feedback. Negative feedback decreases gain of amplifier.

When the feedback signal which is fed back at input is in phase with input, then feedback is called positive or regenerative feedback. positive feedback increases gain of amplifier.

In full wave bridge rectifier four diodes D1,D2,D3 & D4 are connected along four arms in the way similar to the resistances connected in wheat stone bridge.

The process of making operating point independent of temperature changes or variations in transistor parameters is known as transistor stabilization.

It is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage. It is denoted by s(r).          s(r) = (dvo/dt)max Where, vo = output voltage

The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a portion of the applied wave is known as a clipping circuit.

In this method, we assume that the dependent variable is the product of two functions, each of which involves only one of the independent variables. So two ordinary differential equation are formed.